|
Sun
Worship
The only important god who was worshiped with consistency
was Ra, chief of cosmic deities, from whom early Egyptian
kings claimed descent. Beginning with the Middle Kingdom
(2134-1668 BC), Ra worship acquired the status of a state
religion, and the god was gradually fused with Amon during
the Theban dynasties, becoming the supreme god Amon-Ra.
During the 18th Dynasty the pharaoh Amenhotep III renamed
the sun god Aton, an ancient term for the physical solar
force. Amenhotep's son and successor, Amenhotep IV,
instituted a revolution in Egyptian religion by proclaiming
Aton the true and only god. He changed his own name to
Akhenaton, meaning “Aton is satisfied.” This first great
monotheist was so iconoclastic that he had the plural word
gods deleted from monuments, and he relentlessly persecuted
the priests of Amon. Akhenaton's sun religion failed to
survive, although it exerted a great influence on the art
and thinking of his time, and Egypt returned to the ancient,
labyrinthine religion of polytheism after Akhenaton's death.
I S I S
Isis, in Egyptian
mythology, goddess of fertility and motherhood. According to
the Egyptian belief, she was the daughter of the god Keb
(Earth) and the goddess Nut (Sky), the sister-wife of
Osiris, judge of the dead, and mother of Horus, god of day.
After the end of the New Kingdom in the 4th century BC, the
center of Isis worship, which was then reaching its greatest
peak, was on Philae, an island in the Nile, where a great
temple was built to her during the 30th Dynasty. Ancient
stories described Isis as having great magical skill, and
she was represented as human in form though she was
frequently described as wearing the horns of a cow. Her
personality was believed to resemble that of Athor, or
Hathor, the goddess of love and gaiety. The cult of Isis
spread from Alexandria throughout the Hellenistic world
after the 4th century BC. It appeared in Greece in
combination with the cults of Horus, her son, and Serapis,
the Greek name for Osiris. The Greek historian Herodotus
identified Isis with Demeter, the Greek goddess of earth,
agriculture, and fertility. The tripartite cult of Isis,
Horus, and Serapis was later introduced (86 BC) into Rome in
the consulship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla and became one of
the most popular branches of Roman religion. It later
received a bad reputation through the licentiousness of some
of its priestly rites, and subsequent consuls made efforts
to suppress or limit Isis worship. The cult died out in Rome
after the institution of Christianity, and the last
remaining Egyptian temples to Isis were closed in the middle
of the 6th century AD.
Suggested Reading: Legends of the Egyptian Gods ; by Sir
E.A.Wallis Budge, Dover Publications, Inc. (1994).
O S I R I S
Osiris, in Egyptian
mythology, one of the principal deities. Originally the
local god of Abydos and Busiris, Osiris, who represented the
male productive force in nature, became identified with the
setting sun. Thus he was regarded as the ruler of the realm
of the dead in the mysterious region below the western
horizon. Osiris was the brother and husband of Isis, goddess
of the earth and moon, who represented the female productive
force in nature. According to legend, Osiris, as king of
Egypt, found his people plunged in barbarism and taught them
law, agriculture, religion, and other blessings of
civilization. He was murdered by his evil brother, Set, who
tore the body to pieces and scattered the fragments. Isis
found and buried his scattered remains, however, and each
burial place was thereafter revered as sacred ground. Their
son Horus, sired by a temporarily regenerated Osiris,
avenged his father's death by killing Set and then ascended
the throne. Osiris lived on in the underworld as the ruler
of the dead, but he was also, through Horus, regarded as the
source of renewed life. The cult of Isis spread from
Alexandria throughout the Hellenistic world after the 4th
century BC. It appeared in Greece in combination with the
cults of Horus, her son, and Serapis, the Greek name for
Osiris. The Greek historian Herodotus identified Isis with
Demeter, the Greek goddess of earth, agriculture, and
fertility. The tripartite cult of Isis, Horus, and
Serapis was later introduced (86 BC) into Rome in the
consulship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla and became one of the
most popular branches of Roman religion. It later received a
bad reputation through the licentiousness of some of its
priestly rites, and subsequent consuls made efforts to
suppress or limit Isis worship. The cult died out in Rome
after the institution of Christianity, and the last
remaining Egyptian temples to Isis were closed in the middle
of the 6th century AD.
Suggested Reading:
Legends of the Egyptian Gods ; by Sir E.A.Wallis Budge,
Dover Publications, Inc. (1994).
The Book of the Dead ; by Sir E.A.Wallis Budge, Arkana
Publishing (?).
Ancient Egyptian Magic ; by Dr. Bob Brier, Quill Publishing
(1981).
Osiris & The Egyptian Resurrection ; by Sir E.A.Wallis
Budge, Dover Publications, Inc. ( orig. 1911; current 19? )
R A
Ra or Re, in ancient
Egyptian mythology, sun god depicted with a human body and the
head of a hawk. Ra was usually considered the creator and
controller of the universe, his chief symbols being the sun
disk and the obelisk. Originally a local cult, the worship of
Ra first became widespread during the Old Kingdom in Egypt.
The chief temple of Ra was at the city of Heliopolis, which
became an important center when the cult was adopted as a
state religion. Ra later became associated with other
important deities, particularly Amon and Horus.
Suggested Reading:
Legends of the Egyptian Gods ; by Sir E.A.Wallis Budge, Dover
Publications, Inc. (1994).
The Book of the Dead ; by Sir E.A.Wallis Budge, Arkana
Publishing (?).
Ancient Egyptian Magic ; by Dr. Bob Brier, Quill Publishing
(1981).
APIS BULL
Apis, sacred bull of the ancient Egyptians. It was known to
them as Hapi and was regarded as the incarnation of Osiris or of
Ptah. A court was set apart for Apis in the temple of Ptah at
Memphis. It was believed that when Apis died, a new Apis appeared
and had to be searched out; he would be recognizable by certain
sacred marks upon his body, such as his color (mainly black) and a
knot under his tongue. Apis is sometimes represented as a man with
the head of a bull.
SUGGESTED READING: Legends of the Egyptian Gods ; by Sir
E.A.Wallis Budge. Dover Publications, Inc. (1994).
H A T H O R
Hathor, in Egyptian
mythology, goddess of the sky and queen of heaven. Daughter of
the sun god Ra and wife of the sky god Horus, she was the
goddess of fertility and patron of women and marriage. She was
also the goddess of love and beauty; for this reason, she was
identified often with the Greek goddess Aphrodite. Worshiped
throughout Egypt, she was often represented as a star-studded
cow or as a woman with a cow's head. Her name also appears as
Athor or Athyr.
Suggested Reading: Legends of the Egyptian Gods ; by Sir
E.A.Wallis Budge, Dover Publications, Inc. (1994).
HORUS
Horus, in Egyptian
mythology, god of the sky and of light and goodness. One of the
major Egyptian deities, Horus was the son of Isis, the nature
goddess, and Osiris, the god of the underworld. After Osiris was
murdered by his evil brother Set, the god of darkness and evil,
Horus avenged his father's death by killing his uncle. Worshiped
throughout Egypt, Horus was usually depicted as a falcon or a
falcon-headed man. Another representation of him, an infant with a
finger held to his lips, was known as Harpocrates by the Greeks
and Romans.
Suggested Reading: Legends of the Egyptian Gods ; by Sir
E.A.Wallis Budge, Dover Publications, Inc. (1994).
A M O N
Amon or Ammon (Egyptian, hidden), ancient Egyptian deity,
originally a local Theban god of reproductive forces, represented
as a ram. Amon, his wife, Mut (Egyptian, the mother), and his son,
the moon god Khon (Egyptian, to traverse the sky), formed the
divine triad of Thebes. Later Amon was identified with the sun god
Ra of Heliopolis, and was known as Amon-Ra, the father of the
gods, the fashioner of men, the creator of cattle, the lord of all
being. As a universal god he became the god of the Egyptian nation
and the empire. The power of his high priest rivaled that of the
pharaoh, provoking political problems similar to modern
church-state rivalry. The most massive temple ever built was
constructed for Amon-Ra at El-Karnak. Amon was worshiped in the
ancient Greek colonies of Cyrene, where he was identified with
Zeus, and in Rome, where he was associated with Jupiter.
SUGGESTED READING: Legends of the Egyptian Gods ; by Sir
E.A.Wallis Budge. Dover Publications, Inc. (1994).
A N U B I S
Egyptian god of the dead, represented as a black jackal or
dog, or as a man with the head of a dog or jackal. His parents
were usually given as Re in combination with either Nephthys
or Isis. After the early period of the Old Kingdom, he was
superseded by Osiris as god of the dead, being relegated to a
supporting role as a god of the funeral cult and of the care
of the dead. The black color represented the color of human
corpses after they had undergone the embalming process. In the
Book of the Dead, he was depicted as presiding over the
weighing of the heart of the deceased in the Hall of the Two
Truths. In his role as psychopomp he was referred to as the
"conductor of souls". The Greeks later identified
him with their god Hermes, resulting in the composite deity
Hermanubis. His principal sanctuary was at the necropolis in
Memphis and in other cities. Anubis was also known as Khenty-
Imentiu - "chief of the westerners" - a reference to
the Egyptian belief that the realm of the dead lay to the west
in association with the setting sun, and to their custom of
building cemeteries on the west bank of the Nile.
THE BOOK OF THE DEAD
The Book of the Dead
is a name generally given to a large collection of funerary
texts of various dates, containing magical formulas, hymns,
and prayers believed by the ancient Egyptians to guide and
protect the soul (Ka) in its journey into the region of the
dead (Amenti). Egyptians believed that the knowledge of these
texts enabled the soul to ward off demons attempting to impede
its progress, and to pass the tests set by the 42 judges in
the hall of Osiris, god of the underworld. These texts also
indicated that happiness in the afterlife was dependent on the
deceased's having led a virtuous life on earth. The earliest
religious (funerary) texts known were found cut in hieroglyphs
on the walls inside the pyramids of the kings of the 5th and
6th Dynasties of the Old Kingdom; these became known as the
Pyramid Texts. A famous example is found in the pyramid of
Unas (reigned about 2428-2407 BC), the last king of the 5th
Dynasty. In the first Intermediate Period and in the Middle
Kingdom private individuals had these texts painted on
coffins, from which the alternate name Coffin Texts is
derived. By the 18th Dynasty the texts were inscribed on
papyri placed in the mummy case; these papyri were frequently
from 15 to 30 m (50 to 100 ft) long and illustrated in color.
This vast collection of mortuary texts has survived in three
critical revisions, or recensions: the Heliopolitan Recension,
edited by the priests of the College of Anu (Heliopolis), and
containing texts in use between the 5th and the 12th
Dynasties; the Theban Recension, used from the 18th to the
22nd Dynasties; and the Saite Recension, used from the 26th
Dynasty, about 600 BC probably to the end of the Ptolemies, 31
BC. The title “Book of the Dead” is misleading; the texts
do not form a single connected work and do not belong to one
period. Egyptologists have usually given this title to the
last two Recensions. Translations of some sections (chapters)
were made under various titles; one celebrated English
translation of the Book of the Dead was made by Sir E. A.
Wallis Budge in 1895.
USABTI STATUES
Magical
powers Egyptians believed in servants for the afterlife
by Pat Remler
One of the most
interesting and collectable artifacts from ancient Egypt is
the usabti, the magical statue found in tombs. Magic played an
important role in the daily life of the ancient Egyptians.
Part of their magic was the belief that amulets and statues
would protect them from perils, both real and imagined, in
their daily lives and in the next world. During Egypt's Middle
Kingdom period, small statues began to be placed in the tombs
of the deceased. These statues were intended to be servants
which would magically come to life, and do any unpleasant
chore the deceased might be called upon to perform in the
afterlife. Because the daily life of ancient Egyptians
centered around agriculture, they viewed the next world as
primarily agrarian. They believed that the deceased would have
to plant the fields and maintain irrigation canals, so the
little statues, buried in tombs, took on the appearance of
field workers. They were mummiform, so as to be identified
with Osiris, the god of the dead, but their hands were
protruding from the bandages so they could do the work. At
first, the statues were inscribed with only the name of the
deceased, but soon they were inscribed with magical spells as
well to assure that they would really come alive to do their
chores. A typical spell would be: "O shawabti, if the
deceased is called upon to do work in the next world, answer
"Here I am!" Plough the fields, fill the canals with
water and carry the sand of the east to the west." The
word "shawabti" apparently referred to the persea-tree
out of which these figures were occasionally made. Another
name for them was "usabti" which meant
"answerer". The idea was that when the deceased was
called to work, the figure would answer for him. The statues
are called by both names today. Since ushabtis were provided
to do the work, it became desirable to have many of them.
During the New Kingdom it was common to have hundreds placed
in the more elaborate tombs. Because the number of ushabtis
found in tombs is often nearly 365, it is believed by many
that the Egyptians intended that there be one for each day of
the year. There is no actual evidence for this, and in fact
the number found is rarely exactly 365. The pharaoh Taharqa
had more than one thousand ushabtis, each one beautifully
carved from stone. Ushabtis varied considerably in size and
materials, depending upon the wealth of the deceased. They
were usually made of faience, although some were made of
terra-cotta, wood or stone. Faience, a paste made of ground
quartz or of sand with a high percentage of quartz, was one of
the most commonly used materials in producing ushabtis. The
faience paste was pressed into molds and then fired. When
baked, the glaze would migrate to the outside producing a
smooth glassy surface. The quality and the color of the glaze
depended on the impurities in the paste. Faience ushabtis
range in color from a bright dark blue to various shades of
turquoise and pale green. Faience ushabtis were produced in
all sizes and in varying shapes. The poorest quality were
small, uninscribed and with minimal features. Sometimes the
faces and inscriptions were added with black ink. As the cost
of the figure increased, so too did the quality of workmanship
and the fineness of detail. On the backs of the more detailed
figures are sacks, (usually identified by crosshatching on the
left shoulder) that represent seed packs for planting in the
fields. Sometimes the hoes, held close to the chest are
protruding from each hand. The better quality statues were
usually larger, with inscriptions on the front and back. If a
complete spell was not included on the usabti, it was
customary to identify the deceased with Osiris by inscribing
the name of the deceased along with that of Osiris on each
usabti. For collectors interested in Egyptian artifacts,
ushabtis offer an interesting and affordable possibility. They
are available in all prices, some with clear features and
translatable inscriptions. Ushabtis are an art form that is
purely Egyptian, remaining unchanged in both purpose and form
for over 2,000 years.
(Pat Remler is an associate of Mehrdad and Aziz Sadigh at
Ancient Artifacts & Coins in New York City)
EGYPTIAN BURIAL RITUALS
Burying the dead was of
religious concern in Egypt, and Egyptian funerary rituals and
equipment eventually became the most elaborate the world has ever
known. The Egyptians believed that the vital life-force was
composed of several psychical elements, of which the most
important was the ka. The ka, a duplicate of the body, accompanied
the body throughout life and, after death, departed from the body
to take its place in the kingdom of the dead. The ka,
however, could not exist without the body; every effort had to be
made, therefore, to preserve the corpse. Bodies were embalmed and
mummified according to a traditional method supposedly begun by
Isis, who mummified her husband Osiris. In addition, wood or stone
replicas of the body were put into the tomb in the event that the
mummy was destroyed. The greater the number of statue-duplicates
in his or her tomb, the more chances the dead person had of
resurrection. As a final protection, exceedingly elaborate tombs
were erected to protect the corpse and its equipment. After
leaving the tomb, the souls of the dead supposedly were beset by
innumerable dangers, and the tombs were therefore furnished with a
copy of the Book of the Dead. Part of this book, a guide to the
world of the dead, consists of charms designed to overcome these
dangers. After arriving in the kingdom of the dead, the ka was
judged by Osiris, the king of the dead, and 42 demon assistants.
The Book of the Dead also contains instructions for proper conduct
before these judges. If the judges decided the deceased had been a
sinner, the ka was condemned to hunger and thirst or to be torn to
pieces by horrible executioners. If the decision was favorable,
the ka went to the heavenly realm of the fields of Yaru, where
grain grew 3.7 m (12 ft) high and existence was a glorified
version of life on earth. All the necessities for this
paradisiacal existence, from furniture to reading matter, were,
therefore, put into the tombs. As a payment for the afterlife and
his
benevolent protect son, Osiris required the dead to perform tasks
for him, such as working in the grain fields. Even this duty
could, however, be obviated by placing small statuettes, called
usabtis, into the tomb to serve as substitutes for the deceased.
HELIOPOLIS
Heliopolis (ancient
Egypt) (Greek, city of the sun), city of ancient Egypt, the center
of sun worship during the pre-Christian Egyptian civilization. The
ruins of the city are 8 km (5 mi) east of the Nile River at the
apex of the Nile delta, and about 10 km (about 6 mi) northeast of
Cairo. Heliopolis was originally the center of worship of the god
Tem, deity of the setting sun, later regarded as a form of the sun
god Ra. In Egyptian theological literature, the city was known as
Per-Ra (City of Ra), of which the Greek name is a translation. In
the Bible, Heliopolis is referred to as On, Aven, and Beth-Shemesh.
Although its history goes as far back as about 2900 BC, the city
reached its greatest development during the New Kingdom, beginning
about 1570 BC, when Ra, later called Amon-Ra, came to be regarded
as the chief god of the Egyptian pantheon. Under the pharaoh
Ramses II during the 13th century BC, the temple of Heliopolis
reached the height of its influence, with almost 13,000 priests
and slaves serving in it. Most of the religious literature of
ancient Egypt was written by the priests of Heliopolis, who were
renowned for their learning, and the temple was the repository for
royal records. The city declined under later dynasties, especially
after the founding of Alexandria (332 BC), and the Ptolemies
almost disregarded it. When Rome occupied Egypt, the obelisks of
Heliopolis were removed, and the walls of its buildings were used
as construction materials for other cities. |
